Status of the Egyptian Tortoise in Egypt
Sherif and Mindy Baha El Din, TortoiseCare
Submitted to the Turtle Recovery Programme
Wildlife Conservation Society
August 1994
Acknowledgements
Summary
Introduction
The fragile habitat of this species has been ravaged by severee over-grazing, massive reclamation schemes involving large areas of semi-desert and intensive coastal development for tourism and urban expansion; not to mention other abusive practices these habitats are subjected to through military exercises and other vehicular usage. Even the smallest actions by man can have widespread ecological implications for the fragile ecology of a semi-arid environment. For example, the introduction of man made structures, such as telephone poles and buildings, in an otherwise tree-less landscape, provides increased nesting opportunities for the Brown-necked Raven Corvus ruficollis (a natural predator of the Egyptian Tortoise), and thus potentially increasing its numbers and the pressure it puts on the tortoise population in its environment.
Published information on the current status of the species in Egypt is completely lacking. The ecology and biology of the species has been very sparsely studied. The only recent systematic observations of the species and its ecology provide information on one isolated population in the western Negev (Geffen & Mendelssohn 1988, 1991).
Egypt is the most important range state for the Egyptian Tortoise since most of the species' range is within the country. A fairly positive conservation atmosphere has been created in response to recent promising developments in the environmental and conservation fields in Egypt. With the Egyptian Government, through the newly re-structured Environmental Affairs Agency, showing a growing interest in biological diversity and the protection of Egypt's natural heritage. Thus the current period might be politically opportune to push for the practical protection of this species and its habitats by the Egyptian Government (particularly since it is one of the very few endemic or near-endemic taxa, for which Egypt has the main responsibility for its survival).
Study objectives
Specific objectives are:
Study methodology
An average of about 4km was walked at each site selected. The condition of vegetation was noted, and signs of tortoise activity were searched for. A Magellan Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to provide a position fix at the beginning of each walk . Other reptile and bird species occurring at the site were recorded. Most walking surveys were carried out in the morning period when tortoise activity is likely to be the highest.
Local markets were also visited to inquire about tortoise collection and trade. In Cairo animal traders and commercial collectors were interviewed and pet stores and wildlife markets were visited frequently to assess the trade in tortoises.
Distribution and habitat of T. kleinmanni in Egypt
Distribution and habitat of T. kleinmanni in Egypt
The past range of T. kleinmanni in Egypt probably encompassed the whole Mediterranean coastal desert east and west of the Nile Delta within 100km from the sea. The few records of the species further south (Bir Gindali, Wadi Degla and Wadi El Natrun), probably represent remnants of relict populations which became isolated (and probably now extinct) when the landscape became increasingly arid and degraded.
In North Sinai T. kleinmanni inhabits soft sand habitats largely dominated by Artemisia monosperma scrub, similar to the habitat occupied by the species in Israel and described by Geffen & Mendelssohn (1988, 1991). However, the species dose not appear to be restricted to these soft sand habitats, as might be inferred from ecological work carried out on the species in Israel, where its range is very small. In other parts of Egypt the species has been recorded from regions with very little soft sand or dunes, or none at all. In fact most of the past records from the North Coast are from areas dominated by compacted sand and gravel plains with scattered rocks and shallow sandy wadis , very different from the dune fields of North Sinai and the western Negev. Flower (1933) reported the species from the North Coast on the top of escarpments inland. The species appears also to inhabit coastal areas adjacent to salt marshes as suggested by individuals reported near the southern margins of Lake Bardawil and east of Salum (see results of survey below).
The present study was made possible by a grant from the Turtle Recovery Programme. The initiation of this work would not have been possible without the commitment, interest and co-operation of Dr. Michael Klemens (Wildlife Conservation Society, USA) and Ms. Amie Bräutigam (IUCN/SSC). In Egypt, I am deeply indebted to my field assistant and companion Mindy Baha El Din, who's help and input were instrumental for the completion of the study. Waheed Salama (Zaranik Protected Area) accompanied me during some of the field work in North Sinai. Dr. Essam El Badry (Direction, Nature Conservation Section, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency) supported the study and showed great interest in its results I am grateful to Jim Buskirk for his insight, advice and for providing valuable literature; and to John Howes (IUCN/SSC) for his efforts to follow up the study. Omar Attum and Ahmed Riad provided valuable data on trade.
A field survey was carried out during the spring of 1994 to provide an overall assessment of the status of the Egyptian Tortoise, Testudo kleinmanni, and its habitats in Egypt, and to determine if any viable populations still remain in the country and where. The most important outcome of the study is the obvious lack of the species, which appears to have been eliminated from the larger part of its former range in Egypt. The main threats endangering the future survival of this species in Egypt are: extensive (mostly irreversible) habitat destruction and wide-spread ecological changes caused by agricultural expansion, cultivation, over grazing and urban encroachment; and continued intensive collection for the pet trade by locals and professional collectors.
The Egyptian Tortoise Testudo kleinmanni is a small Testudinid inhabiting the fairly arid deserts fringing the south eastern coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, extending as far as 120 km inland at some localities. The species formerly occupied a wide area extending from the western Negev in Israel to the central coastal region of Libya. Throughout its range the Egyptian Tortoise has been subjected to severe pressures, which has lead to its extirpation from large areas of its former range, particularly in Egypt. The species is considered as vulnerable by the IUCN Reptilia and Amphibia Red Data Book (Groombridge 1982) and the 1990 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN 1990). If current trends continue unchanged and unchallenged in the near future, no viable populations of this species will remain in the wild.
The overall goal of the study was to collect up-to-date elementary data and information on the status of the Egyptian Tortoise and of its habitats in the country, which could be used to formulate the instrument needed to pursue the conservation of viable populations of the species and its habitat.
The survey period extended between 13 March 1994 and 4 June 1994, with about 40 days spent in the field. The basic survey methodology depended heavily on interviewing local people to gather information on the status of T. kleinmanni and finding out the best localities or habitats where walking surveys can be carried out. In total 8,400km were travelled by car, and 49 site surveys (23 in North Coast and 26 in North Sinai) were carried out at sites selected based on information provided by locals, and on the apparent likely suitability of the habitat for tortoises. Since no tortoises or evidence of their existence was found throughout the study period no in-depth investigation were carried out to quantify habitat attributes; and given the large scale evident habitat destruction, most efforts were directed towards the gross assessment of habitats and to finding evidence of existing tortoise populations.
Buskirk (1985) presented a comprehensive summary of all 19 published documented locality records of T. kleinmanni in Egypt known up to the date of his publication (see figure 1). Although the accuracy of some of these records is suspect (e.g. Giza and Damietta), they do represent the only documented evidence of the past distribution of the species in the country. There are three more recent records from Egypt; one animal found with a local who claimed to have encountered it outside his home at El Teloul, North Sinai; and the remains of a single animal found in a Brown-necked Raven's nest in a tributary of Wadi Digla, south east of Cairo (Baha El Din 1992). The third record is of a dead animal found by a local at the north end of Wadi El Natrun and presented to Mr. Ahmed Riad (pers. com.) in 1991.
1 Wadi El Amr; 2 Wadi Hareidin; 3 Bir Lahfan; 4 El Arish; 5 El Teloul; 6 Bir El Abd; 7 Katia; 8 Romana; 9 El Qantara; 10 Ismailia; 11 Port Said; 12 Damietta; 13 Bir Gindali; 14 Wadi Digla; 15 Giza; 16 Wadi El Natrun; 17 Maryut; 18 Alexandria; 19 El Daba; 20 Matruh; 21 1.6km south of Sidi Barrani; 22 Salum.
Figure 1. Locality records of Testudo kleinmanni in Egypt. Largely based on Flower (1933); Schmidt & Marx (1956); Marx (1968); Werner (1973); Buskirk (1985) and Baha El Din (1992).
Findings of Field Surveys
The North Coast
Figure 2. Map of North Coast.
The human population is estimated at about 168,300 (1991 Governorate of Matruh estimate). Most of the human settlements in the region are found in the coastal strip, or within 5km either side of the coastal highway. The habitation style is highly dispersed, with only a moderate proportion of the population found in urban centers. The main economic activities of the local population include cultivation, herding, trade, and more recently tourist services and construction work.
Following is a discussion of the findings of the 1994 spring tortoise survey, dealing separately with the two parts of T. kleinmanni's range in Egypt, east and west of the Nile Delta; the North Coast and North Sinai. The two regions are distinct and differ considerably in their landscape features, ecology, biogeographical affinities and socio-economy.
The North Coast (or western Marmarica), is a coastal desert region, extending 600km between Alexandria in the east to Salum, on the Libyan border, in the west; with an average width of 50km. It is quite distinct from the remainder of the vast Western Desert, which lies to the south. The region receives the highest precipitation in Egypt, ranging between 70-200mm annually (almost all falling during winter), and has the country's richest flora (Goodman & Meininger 1989). The topography of the North Cost is fairly uniform and monotonous. The main features are coastal oolitic sand-dunes and limestone ridges, followed by saline depressions, a coastal plain of a varied width dissected by shallow wadis, and, more usually than not, an inland rocky ridge and plateaux. Further inland the desert is very flat and open, with stony or siliceous sandy substrate, often in the form of low dunes or undulating sand. The local distribution of floral communities is highly linked to these physiographic features (Zahran & Willis 1992). The latter authors recognise seven types of "ecosystems" (vegetation patterns) in the North Coast, most important of these are: Sand-dunes (coastal oolitic, and inland siliceous); Rocky ridges and plateaux; Saline and non-saline depressions; Wadis; Sandy (and stony) plains. Much of the coastal plant communities are dominated by the woody shrubs Thymelaea hirusta, Artemisia monosperma and Anabasis articulata. The prominent reptile species which share T. kleinmanni's habitat in the North Coast include, Stenodactylus sthenodactylus; Acanthodactylus scutellatus; A. boskianus; A. pardalis; Trapelus mutabilis; Varanus griseus; Chamaeleo chamaeleon; Spalerosophis diadema; Macroprotodon cucullatus; Malpolon monspessulana and the toad Bufo viridis.
Current status of T. kleinmanni in the North Coast
No animals were found, nor was there any evidence of their existence (scats, tracks or dead animals) in the wild in any of the surveyed areas. Of the 23 sites surveyed in the North Coast region, only one probably had a small number of animals. This was a site 32 km east of Salum. Located to the north of the highway, the site had fairly healthy vegetation and was apparently very lightly populated, with moderate grazing pressure. Although no animals were found, a local herder made a very convincing claim of finding one or two animals in the area during the first half of March 1994.
Almost all the locals questioned about the species were familiar with it, although younger persons were often unfamiliar with the species (see ethno-biology below). But invariably they all stated that it had disappeared from their own domain, within the last 10-20 years. Almost all suggested that it still occurs somewhere further west than their own region (e.g. at El Hammam, locals suggested that tortoises can still be found at El Daba, while at El Daba, Matruh was proposed as a good place for tortoises, and so on), every one knew though that Libya was a good place for these animals.
T. kleinmanni has apparently been extirpated from the greater part of its' former range in the North Coast. The species has certainly completely disappeared from a 15-20 km strip adjacent to the Mediterranean, west to about Buqbuq, west of which some suitable habitat still remains (see above). Very small, highly fragmented and isolated populations (or even individual animals) might still exist in marginal habitats in a transitional zone between the more mesic coastal habitat and the xeric interior. Any animals still surviving in these less than optimum habitats are likely to be exposed to heavy preditation (by dogs, Desert Monitors Varanus griseus, and birds of prey, etc.), or to collection by herders; because of the low complexity of the vegetation, providing little cover. The sparse supply of small annuals and other food items, means that animals have to forage further and for longer periods, increasing their exposure to additional dangers.
Figure 3. Map of North Coast showing localities visited during the spring of 1994. Numbers refer to site number in table 1.
Table 1. Localities visited in the North Coast during the 1994 spring study.
GPS fix refers to fixes provided by a Global Positioning System used at each site visited. 1 Brief site description; 2 Evidence of T. kleinmanni (Y=yes; N=no); 3 Summary of information gathered from locals.
# Locality name GPS fix 1 2 3 1 S.E. El Hammam 30°44'37"N 29°15'35"E Sand and gravel plain, fairly dense plant cover, dominated by Thymelaea hirusta. Heavily grazed. N One local claimed that tortoises can still be found in the area, but most others said they are no longer found. 2 S. El Hammam 30°44'24"N 29°13'04"E Large sandy plain, moderate plant cover, dominated by Thymelaea hirusta. Heavily grazed. N Not seen in a very long time. 3 El Omayed (Protected Area) no fix Sand and gravel plains bordered from the south by a lime stone ridge. Moderate plant cover dominated by Artemisia monosperma and Thymelaea hirusta. Heavily grazed. N Not seen in a very long time. 4 77km W. of Alex no fix Coastal oolitic dunes and salt marsh, over grazed and highly disturbed by encroaching urban developments. N Was known in the past but not seen in a very long time. 5 E. Sidi Abd El Rahman 30°54'01"N 28°50'13"E Coastal oolitic dunes, over grazed and highly disturbed. N Was known in the past but not seen in a very long time. 6 S. El Daba 31°00'15"N 28°26'29"E Undulating soft sand, fairly good plant cover dominated by Thymelaea hirusta. Very heavily grazed, with no annuals remaining. N Locals not familiar with the species. 7 S. El Daba 30°58'27"N 28°26'56"E Extensive plain covered with gravel and undulating sand, good vegetation dominated by Thymelaea hirusta, but over grazed and disturbed. N Locals not familiar with the species. 8 E. Matruh 31°01'04"N 28°10'24"E Sand and gravel plain with patches of moderate plant cover dominated by Thymelaea hirusta. Highly over grazed and degraded. N Not known locally, but possibly existed in the past. 9 Ras El Hekma no fix Coastal dunes and sand/gravel plain. Moderate plant cover. Over grazed and highly disturbed, some cultivation. N Not known locally. 10 E. Matruh 31°09'23"N 27°34'34"E Gravel and sand plateau with scattered rocks and moderate but very divers plant cover. Over grazed. N Not seen locally for 10-20 years, but occurred further south in the more recent past. 11 43km SE Matruh no fix Gravel covered plateau with sandy wadis, scattered rocks and moderate but divers plant cover. Over grazed and partly cultivated. N Not known locally. 12 26km E Matruh no fix Gravel covered plateau with shallow wadis, scattered rocks and moderate but divers plant cover. Over grazed and disturbed. N No one questioned. 13 20km W. Matruh no fix Coastal oolitic dunes and ridges, and salt marshes. Moderate but divers plant cover. Over grazed and highly disturbed and fragmented. Large areas have been cultivated and built on. N The area was mentioned by many as a good tortoise site. Local residents, however, stated that the species has disappeared from the area many years ago. 14 SW Matruh 31°12'54"N 27°05'21"E Very extensive loamy sand plain with scattered stones and rocks. Good plant cover largely dominated by Thymelaea hirusta. Over grazed. Very few annuals found. N The only local found in the area did not appear to know the species. (It is likely to exist, however, given the extensiveness of the area and moderate condition of habitat) 15 SW Matruh 31°08'32"N 27°00'19"E Extensive gravely plain with scattered rocks and moderate plant cover dominated by Thymelaea hirusta. Rather dry and very over grazed. N Not known currently from the area, but might have existed in the past. Too sparsely vegetated at present to support tortoises. 16 SW Matruh 30°41'07"N 26°34'23"E Extensive hammada desert with many small depressions, which support reasonable plant cover, dominated by Limonium sp. N No one questioned. 17 SE Abu Laho 31°17'54"N 26°57'48"E Large gravel plain, with moderate plant cover dominated by Thymelaea hirusta. Over grazed and some parts ploughed N Not seen for the past 20 years. Might exist further inland. 18 Abu Laho no fix Large gravel plain with scattered rocks and moderate plant cover dominated by Thymelaea hirusta. Over grazed, highly disturbed and partly ploughed. N Known from the area but not seen for a long time. 19 N. Qattarani 31°28'47"N 26°11'20"E Large gravel plain with scattered rocks and shallow depressions. Good plant cover dominated by Thymelaea hirusta and Artemisia monosperma. Over grazed and highly disturbed and partly ploughed. N Used to exist in the area. Last reported in 1979. 20 N. Qattarani 31°31'10"N 26°13'14"E Very similar to above site, but more severeely grazed and with larger areas ploughed. N Not known. 21 5km S. Buqbuq no fix Extensive loamy gravel plain with good plant cover dominated by Thymelaea hirusta. Heavily over grazed. N Known but no recent reports. 22 32km E Salum no fix Large semi saline coastal plain and coastal oolitic dunes and undulating sand. Very good plant cover of high complexity and diversity. The bush Nitraria retusa prominent. Some Date Palms are scattered on the margin of the site. Moderately grazed and lightly disturbed. N Known and very rarely encountered. One local herder found 1-2 animals during the first half of March 1994. 23 10km SE Salum (Salum Plateaux) 31°29'25"N 25°13'16"E Gravel covered plateaux with scattered rocks and sandy wadi, moderately grazed but too sparsely vegetated and perhaps with too much relief. N No recent sighting, but tortoises were said to still exist further south atop the plateaux. Habitat did not look very good however.
Threats
Ploughing with modern machinery is the most destructive recent development on the agricultural front. In the past camels, donkeys and simple tools were used for ploughing, which did not allow for the complete elimination of perennial vegetation or the destruction of areas with thick cover or with rocky substrate; leaving behind a network of islands of natural vegetation. Modern machinery, however, indiscriminately and completely removes perennial shrubs, which provide complexity and shelter to the tortoises and flattens the landscape, penetrating through areas previously difficult to cultivate by traditional technology; probably also killing animals in the process. Ploughing takes place during winter and early spring, according to the rainfall pattern and timing. Barley and wheat are the main crops cultivated. After the crop is harvested in late spring/early summer, the land lays barren and completely devoid of any kind of vegetation, throughout the remainder of the year. This in turn has meant that grazing pressure has increased dramatically in any remaining pockets of natural habitats, as well as, in marginal areas not suited for cultivation, degrading them further.
The completion (some time in the near future) of a canal, planned to reach all the way to El Daba, carrying Nile water from the Delta; and the introduction of irrigation based agriculture, will completely alter the landscape and ecology of the eastern section of the North Coast. The project, which also involves settling Nile Valley Egyptians on the newly reclaimed land, will lead to a great increase in the human population in the region.
Traditional pastoralism and over grazing: Unlike the impact of agriculture, which is very easy to observe, even from long distances (the complete removal of natural vegetation), the impact of grazing is more subtle. Grazing is probably as devastating to the tortoises. Sheep and goats directly compete with tortoises over the same food resource: Annuals (the main food item for T. kleinmanni). In early spring when T. kleinmanni's activity should reach its peak, coinciding with maximum growth of annuals; grazing is most intense. Close examination of areas that appeared in good condition from a distance, revealed that only dominant woody perennials, which are not browsed heavily by sheep and goats (such as Thymelaea hirusta and Artemisia monosperma), were left, while annuals, were heavily browsed. Indeed in most sites visited there were very few or no annuals left. All sites visited had a heard or more grazing in it. Tracks, droppings and signs of severe over grazing were seen every where.
Traditional pastoralism in the past was more limited than today. The human population was much smaller, and summer grazing opportunities were very limited (thus limiting the possibility of maintaining excessively large herds). In modern times however, the use of trucks has enabled local Bedouins to transport their herds from one grazing site to another at high speed, rapidly depleting grazing grounds in large areas. And in the summer, some even transport their herds outside the North Coast region altogether to other parts of the country with better grazing opportunities. Supplementary food and water transported by trucks made it possible to take herds further afield, to graze marginal habitats in distant localities. These areas were not normally grazed in the past. They were difficult to reach and could only support grazing during very short periods of the year. All these techniques (made possible by modern transport), have allowed locals to maintain larger herds, far exceeding the carrying capacity of their environment.
Commercial collection: No evidence was found of commercial collection of tortoises in the North Coast area at the present time. One animal found with a herder at Salum was brought from Libya. Both professional collectors (from Abu Rawash) and locals, stated in agreement that the species is no longer collected from the North Coast region. They both acknowledge, however, that large numbers were collected in the past, for sale as pets, but that extremely small numbers have been found during the past 10 years. But even today, any of the very few remaining animals encountered will still be collected and sold to commercial collectors, or at local markets to Egyptian tourists from the Nile Valley (locals are not interested in buying tortoises).
Commercial wildlife collectors and traders usually have a network of local inhabitants (middle men), who collect various species of reptiles and mammals for them. These middle men buy any wildlife (including tortoises, if any) brought to them by other locals. Herders are the most likely to encounter tortoises in the wild and collect them. Indeed herders are responsible for collecting the great majority of tortoises in the past (local pers. comm.). Herders are very familiar with T. kleinmanni, its habits, habitat and most importantly tracks (see ethno-biology, below). More over, herding activity is highest during the period of maximum tortoise activity in the spring, which optimises the opportunity for herders to find the animals. The economic importance of tortoise collection is very small to the locals, but herders (who are usually very poor) welcome the opportunity of making a few extra pounds on the side. However, when larger numbers are involved the economic gains are likely to be more substantial for the dealers.
Urban encroachment and tourist development: Urban expansion has consumed large areas of the coastal strip between Alexandria and Matruh. The area between Alexandria and El Alamein has nearly been completely developed and occupied tourist facilities and there are plans to develop almost all of the rest of the North Coast coastal strip. These developments not only lead to the complete destruction of the sites they are built on, but also lead to degradation of vast areas surrounding them which are impacted by the various activities associated with the construction and operation of these developments (such as building material extraction, waste disposal and disturbance). A small portion of the coastal region to the west of Matruh has also been developed in recent years. Urban development is taking place in the North Coast at a very rapid pace, to the extent that most of the structures found currently along the coasts of the region have been erected in the past 5-10 years, and the rate at which new developments are being established is increasing further.
Other Large scale projects: Two other large projects in the North Coast which could impact large areas of the North Coast are a nuclear power plant at El Daba, and Qattara Depression Hydroelectric Project (which aims at flooding the massive depression with sea water with the purpose of generating electricity). These projects have been talked about for a long time, but appear to have been stalled.
Military activity: Movements and training activities of the military cause considerable damage to habitats, particularly in the region adjoining the Libyan borders, between Salum and Siwa Oasis. Add to that the fact that military personnel were involved in collecting tortoises in the past, and will still collect animals if any are found.
Figure 4. Map showing the gross distribution of T. kleinmanni's habitat and its status in the North Coast. 1: Degraded habitat, either by cultivation or by grazing. 2: Areas destroyed by urban encroachment. 3: Habitat of moderate quality, heavily grazed but not cultivated (structural complexity largely intact, but food scarce). 4: Fairly good habitat. The remainder of the area is too arid to support tortoise populations.
South of the coastal highway human activity extends as far inland as rainfall allows to sustain agriculture and grazing. Generally concentrated within the first 10km south of the highway and extending as far as 30km inland. Most of the habitat within the first 10km is highly degraded as a result of widespread ploughing and over grazing. Pockets of habitat still remain in the more arid interior, where rainfall is too little to support cultivation, however these areas are usually severeely overgrazed. These inland pockets of habitat are the most likely to hold any remaining populations of T. kleinmanni. Further inland (20-30km south of the highway) the desert becomes increasingly arid and the plant cover too sparse to provide cover to the species. Even in these arid areas grazing takes place, mainly during the winter and spring when annuals are relatively plentiful.
North Sinai
Figure 5. Map of North Sinai.
Rainfall is generally rather lower than in the North Coast and is restricted to the winter months, with an average of 97mm at El Arish, but rapidly increasing east wards to over 200mm at Rafah. The amount of rainfall decreases very rapidly to the south and west.
Vegetation near the coast is dominated by halophytes, such as Halocnemum strobilaceum and succulents such as Zygophyllum album. Kassas (1955) (in Zahran & Willis 1992), estimated the plant cover of the North Sinai littoral dunes at 5%. The vegetation of the dunes further inland are dominated by Artemisia monosperma and to a lesser extent by the grass Stipagrostis scoparia. These communities are subject to intense human interference by cutting and grazing. In places distant from human settlement, the plant cover may reach up to 70% (Zahran & Willis 1992).
Characteristic reptiles which share T. kleinmanni's habitat in North Sinai include, Stenodactylus petrii; Acanthodactylus scutellatus; A. boskianus; Mesalina olivieri; Trapelus savignyi; Sphenops sepsoides; Chamaeleo chamaeleon; Varanus griseus; Lytorhynchus diadema; Psammophis schokari and Cerastes vipera.
The 1986 human population estimate for North Sinai is 171,500 (Euroconsult 1992). Unlike the highly dispersed settlement pattern in the North Coast, most of North Sinai's population is concentrated in a few fairly large urban centres (largest is the city of El Arish).
From the condition of the habitat over much of the North Coast region, it was, visually, clearly obvious that vast tracts of what probably was previously suitable habitat for T. kleinmanni (judging from remnant patches of habitat), have become uninhabitable for the species, and that no animals could survive any longer in these areas. These highly degraded areas were only briefly examined on a few occasions to assess closely their condition, but no walking surveys were carried out.
Ethno-biology
Testudo kleinmanni is known to locals throughout the North Coast (from at least as far east as El Hammam) as Fakarouni or Fakrouna , a name used in Libya as well, but is completely unknown to Nile Valley Egyptians. Because of the nature of their profession, herders were the most knowledgeable about the species, as well as, other wildlife in their environs. The level of knowledge some local people had of the species was quite astonishing. For example one man described to me the breeding, copulating and nesting behaviour very accurately, and identified annuals which the species favours to feed on. Tracks were well known to many, and scats were mentioned as a good indicator of the presence of tortoises in a given area. It was of interest to note that amongst the local population of the North Coast, older individuals were the most familiar with the Egyptian Tortoise. Young people often did not now the species and did not recognise its local name. This is perhaps a further indication to the demise of the Egyptian Tortoise in the region.
Agriculture: Perhaps the most serious threat to T. kleinmanni is the complete (and possibly irreversible) destruction of habitat caused by agricultural activities. Traditionally, the native inhabitants of the North Coast cultivated small areas of rain fed winter cereals, olives and dates. Today, with the growth of population and the introduction of modern machinery, almost all cultivable land receiving sufficient rain to grow a crop, is ploughed (usually) annually to cultivate winter cereals. The areas most intensively cultivated are those which held prime T. kleinmanni's habitats in the past (as indicated by remaining pockets of natural habitat).
Habitat quality generally declines eastwards, with the section of coastal desert between Alamein and Alexandria being the most degraded. Land immediately adjacent to the coastal highway, linking Alexandria, Matruh and Salum, is intensely affected by human activity. The strip of land to the north of the highway (land between the highway and the Mediterranean, referred to herein as the "coastal strip"), which varies in width between 1-20km, is the most affected by human activities. There are, however, some reasonably healthy patches of habitat remaining in this coastal strip west of Buqbuq and just east of Salum. The human population density here appears to be the lowest along the whole coast. Agriculture, over grazing and urban encroachment are the chief causes for habitat degradation. Additionally, during the past 5 years coastal tourist developments have become a real threat. To date, the coastal strip between Alexandria and Alamein has been completely devoured by tourist resorts, and large expanses between Alamein and Matruh have been, or are in the process of being converted to resort use. The main components of the coastal environment which are being decimated by these developments are the littoral oolitic sand-dunes, right on the coast, and the salt marshes, typically found immediately south of the coastal dunes. These probably represented prime habitat for T. kleinmanni in the past.
North Sinai is characterised by a low lying landscape dominated by extensive aeolian sand dune fields, which extend southwards from the Mediterranean coast to an average of about 50km. The Tina Plain, situated in the north west of North Sinai is a part of the holocene Nile Delta and consists of a vast clay plain bordered to the south by large areas of salt marsh, which merge with the sand dunes further south. Lake Bardawil, situated half way between the Suez Canal and the city of El Arish, is a shallow hypersaline coastal lagoon. The southern shore of the lagoon is fairly complex consisting of numerous inlets, bays, islets (which are often only seasonally disconnected from the mainland), coastal dunes and extensive mud flats and salt marshes.
South of Bardawil the landscape consists of rolling sand and partly stabilised dunes and some saline sabkhas dominated by halophytic vegetation in interdune plains. Further south (15-20km) a wide belt of high dunes is found. Most of the dunes here are active and unstabilised, with fairly large interdunes, where fairly dense vegetation is often found. More inland the dunes are replaced by flat gravel and clay plains and wadi desert, with scattered hills and low mountains. Wadi El Arish is one of the most important geographical features of North Sinai, extending for about 250km to the south (Zahran & Willis 1992), draining much of central southern Sinai, and forming extensive fluvial deposits particularly along the lower course of the wadi.To the east of Wadi El Arish the landscape is similar to that of central North Sinai, except that sand dunes are smaller and usually well stabilised with a good cover of vegetation, due to the grater rainfall in this region. The sand dune belt also becomes narrower than further west, extending east into the western Negev in Israel. To the south, the dunes are replaced, rather abruptly, with alluvium carried by wadis draining across the border from Israel into the Wadi El Arish.
Current status of T. kleinmanni in North Sinai
The coastal strip east of El Arish (inland to about 10-35km) has been obviously completely destroyed and is no longer suitable for T. kleinmanni. Further inland an area called El Ogra,
right opposite Holot Agur on the Egyptian side of the Israeli border (probably an extension of the same dune field, hence the similarity in names), was cited by many locals as the only area still holding tortoises in north east Sinai. The author did not find any evidence of the existence of tortoises in the area during his visits. The habitat looked like it has been recently degraded by the planting of new peach orchards, and was heavily grazed as well. Further south locals were familiar with the species, they stated that they have not seen any specimens in the past 10 years, but that it is still found on the other side of the border in Israel, and that some animals wander into Egypt occasionally, where they find them. Other apparent good patches of habitat visited by the author, similarly did not produce any evidence of the existence of the species.
West of Wadi El Arish most locals were familiar with the species but had not seen it in many years. Several individuals claimed that they have found animals or their tracks during the spring of 1994 or in the pervious spring. One local claimed that some animals are occasionally found south west of Zaranik (31°03'N 33°15'E), another claimed finding a track this spring at Zaranik and a further one south of El Midan. The author visited all the above localities and found no evidence of the species, though habitat appeared marginally suitable.
A number of locals agreed, however, that a few animals still exist on small islands and sand bars bordering the southern eastern edge of Lake Bardawil, north of El Roda (31°02'N 33°21'E). One claimed that he collected a tortoise from that area in the spring of 1993 and kept it as a pet in his home near by. The animal subsequently escaped into the wild. The author did not find any animals during his visits to the site, but from the consensus of locals and the good habitat available, it seems likely that a small population still remains in this area. This is supported by evidence found further west by the author in earlier years. In the spring of 1985 tracks of T. kleinmanni were found on the Island of Um El Rumiat in western Lake Bardawil (Baha El Din 1985), and its occurrence was confirmed by coast guard soldiers present on the islands (who collected the animals). A subsequent visit to the island in 1990 indicated that the species was likely to have been extirpated from that island (the largest in Lake Bardawil). In the summer of 1990 one animal was found with a local at El Teloul (at the central southern margin of Lake Bardawil), who claimed that he found walking outside his home (Baha El Din 1992). Further west and south of Lake Bardawil the species is not known to locals, or has not been seen for a very long time, and visits by the author did not reveal any evidence of its existence.
T. kleinmanni appears to have been extirpated from the greater part of its former range in North Sinai. Very small, highly fragmented and isolated populations or even individuals probably still exist in isolated patches of habitat amongst inland dunes, particularly towards the Israeli borders; these areas are however very rapidly disappearing, and will probably no longer exist after five years (or less). Any animals still surviving in these less than optimum habitats are likely to be exposed to heavy predation, or to collection by herders. The southern margins of Lake Bardawil appear to be the best remaining habitat for the species and there is evidence that a small, very fragmented population still exists in that region.
Figure 6. Map of North Coast showing localities visited during the spring of 1994. Numbers refer to number in table 2.
Table 2. Localities visited in the North Coast during the 1994 spring study.
GPS fix refers to fixes provided by a Global Positioning System used at each site visited. 1 Brief site description; 2 Evidence of T. kleinmanni (Y=yes; N=no); 3 Summary of information gathered from locals.
# Locality name GPS fix 1 2 3 1 8km S.E. El Gora no fix Medium dunes with some good patches of Artemisia scrub in interdunes, heavily grazed and encroached upon by new cultivation. N Locals stated that tortoises existed in site, but have not been seen in recent years. 2 El Ogra (refers to a sand dune field) no fix Medium dunes with good Artemisia scrub particularly in interdunes, considerable grazing with some encroachment by new cultivation. N Severeal locals agreed that very few tortoises still exist at the site. One claimed seeing an animal in 1993. Another estimated the current local population at 30% of "original" number. 3 El Auja no fix Undulating sand and sandy plain, rather poorly vegetated and over grazed. N Not seen locally for a long time. 4 W. El Auja 30°52'45"N 34°19'23"E Medium to small dunes and sand plains with moderate cover. Over grazed and possibly too sparse for T. kleinmanni. N Not seen locally for a long time. 5 Sad El Rawafa no fix Medium to small dunes and wadi alluvium with moderate cover. Over grazed and probably too sparse for T. kleinmanni. N No one questioned. 6 S. Kharruba 31°02'34"N 33°58'34"E Parallel sand ridges with a fairly dense uniform cover of Artemisia monosperma. Fairly heavily grazed, very few annuals left. N Known, but not seen locally for some years. 7 Lahfan no fix Medium to small dunes and sand plains with moderate cover. Over grazed. N Not seen locally for a long time. 8 W. El Arish no fix Medium dunes with a fairly good uniform cover of Artemisia monosperma, with scattered salt marshes in deep interdunes. Moderately grazed. N Known but no recent reports 9 Risan Aneiza no fix Large to medium dunes with moderate cover dominated by the grass Stipagrostis scoparia. Heavily grazed and cultivated with melons in summer. N No one questioned. 10 El Midan no fix Medium dunes with a good cover of Artemisia monosperma, becoming denser in interdunes. Moderately grazed. N A local bedouin claimed that tortoise tracks are seen frequently and that he found some here in spring 1994. 11 S. Risan Aneiza 30°50'25"N 33°46'30"E Undulating sand, sand sheets and gravel plains. Moderate cover of Zygophyllum, Artemisia and Cornulaca monacantha. Over Grazed and partly cultivated with winter cereal. N Not known from the area. 12 N. Maghara 33°43'47"N 33°20'58"E Undulating sand adjacent to hilly country. Moderate cover of Artemisia monosperma. Moderately grazed. N No one questioned. 13 E. Zaranik no fix Medium dunes and undulating sand with moderate cover dominated by Stipagrostis scoparia and Zygophyllum album in interdunes. Moderately grazed and cultivated with melons in summer. N Known but no recent reports 14 Zaranik (Protected area) 31°06'44"N 33°28'08"E Medium to large dunes and undulating sand with moderate cover dominated by Stipagrostis scoparia and Zygophyllum album in interdunes. Moderately grazed and sparsely cultivated with melons in summer. N Known from the area, but no well documented records. A local bedouin claimed to have seen a tortoise track in early April 1994 at this locality. 15 Zaranik islands no fix Oolitic sandy islets and sand bars bordering the southern edge of Lake Bardawil. Very well vegetated with a wide diversity of species. Some islands with no grazing, others very lightly grazed. One island heavily infested with rodents. N Known from the area, but no recent well documented records. 16 El Roda islands 31°05'19"N 33°20'58"E Oolitic sandy "islets" and sand bars bordering the southern edge of Lake Bardawil. Very well vegetated with a wide diversity of species. Generally very lightly grazed. N Reported by severeal locals, who see it frequently. One reported in 1992 another in 1993. Locals made good description of tortoise tracks and described its hiding places. 17 S.E. El Teloul 31°02'42"N 33°15'06"E Large semi stable dunes with rather sparse vegetation except in the large interdune. Plant cover dominated by Stipagrostis scoparia. Over grazed. N Some locals claimed that tortoises were frequently found on the better vegetated interdunes. One was said to have been found here in 1993. 18 El Teloul no fix Undulating sand with moderate plant cover, dominated by halophytes near the shore of Lake Bardawil and mixture of species further inland. The bush Nitraria retusa is prominent. Highly over grazed. N Not known any more from the area, but still (rarely) seen further inland. 19 10km S.E Bir El Abd no fix Large to medium semi stable dunes with rather sparse vegetation except in the large interdune. Plant cover dominated by Stipagrostis scoparia. Over grazed. N Not seen in recent years. 20 E. El Nasr no fix Medium dunes and undulating sand, with a dense cover of Artemisia monosperma. Annuals heavily grazed. Some areas cleared of plant cover for cultivation. N Claimed from the area, but no recent observations. 21 Tofaha 31°00'59"N 32°51'37"E Medium dunes and undulating sand, with a moderate cover of Artemisia monosperma. Heavily over grazed. Fairly large areas cleared of plant cover for cultivation and urban expansion. N Not known locally. 22 El Nasr no fix Medium dunes and undulating sand, with a moderate cover of Artemisia monosperma and Stipagrostis scoparia. Heavily over grazed. N Not known locally. 23 N. Romana 31°00'30"N 32°40'32"E Large semi stable dunes with a moderate cover of Stipagrostis scoparia and Zygophyllum album and Cornulaca monacantha (in interdunes). Heavily over grazed N Not known locally. 24 N. Balouza no fix Undulating sand and silt on the edge of a large salt marsh, with a fairly dense cover of halophytes and Zygophyllum album. Nitraria retusa bushes are prominent. N Not known locally. 25 S. El Shouhat no fix Large semi stable dunes with moderate cover of Artemisia monosperma and Cornulaca monacantha. Over grazed. N Not known locally. 26 25km E. Ismailia no fix Large semi stable dunes with rather sparse plant cover. Lightly grazed. N No one questioned locally.
Ethno-biology
In contrast with the North Coast, women do most of the herding in North Sinai. This presented a unique problem to the current investigation, since traditionally it is not acceptable that strangers should approach local women. This meant that interviews were mostly conducted with men (who are mostly involved in trade and cultivation) who might have a lesser knowledge of their environs.
Threats
Figure 7. Map of North Sinai showing the location of the El Salam Canal and the NSADP. From Euroconsult (1992).
Besides the more or less traditional cultivation practised in the north east of Sinai, a major reclamation project supplied by fresh water from the Nile via the El Salam Canal, is planned to (eventually) reclaim 400,000 acres of land in North Sinai, extending as far east as Wadi El Arish. The project is known as the North Sinai Agricultural Development Project (NSADP). In fact the El Salam Canal has already reached well beyond Romana, although no fresh water has been introduced in it yet. Most of the land targeted by this project falls within the known range of T. kleinmanni, and includes areas of prime habitat for the species. It is expected that, when completed, the project will lead to the complete loss of all T. kleinmanni habitat in the region between the Suez Canal and Wadi El Arish, either through direct destruction or through indirect large scale changes expected in the ecology of the region.
Traditional pastoralism and grazing: Livestock grazing is one of the most widespread activities amongst North Sinai's inhabitants. The problem of over grazing is very similar to that in the North Coast. Herders are in direct competition with the tortoises, targeting the same habitats, food items and time period as the tortoises. The availability of modern transport also allows for the rapid movement of large herds between winter and summer grazing grounds, and makes it possible to carry water supplies far into the desert in places where grazing would have been difficult in the past. Recent droughts in the interior of Sinai has forced large numbers of Bedouins to move north, where rain and pasture are more plentiful (Waheed Salama, pers. com.). This has severeely degraded habitats in the coastal strip in the past two or three years. There are also indications that these Bedouins are starting to settle permanently in the coastal area, where fresh (drinking) water is already available and the prospect of the introduction of irrigation water from the Nile has made it attractive to establish a claim on the land.
The problem of over grazing in North Sinai is not a recent one; Kassas (1955) noted the striking difference in plant cover within and outside a fenced area in the 1950s. Today a similar (if not more striking) contrast can be noted between the natural vegetation protected inside the El Arish airport perimeter (about 15km south of El Arish), which reaches between 50-60% cover (probably representing a typical prime tortoise habitat in this region), and the less than 5% plant cover in the unprotected (grazed) landscape. The effect of over grazing can also be seen on satellite imagery of Sinai, where the borders between Egypt and Israel become very clearly discernible as a result of the great difference in grazing pressure in the two countries.
Another (indirect) impact of traditional pastoralism, is caused by local bedouin traditional building style, who use massive amounts of the woody shrub Artemisia monosperma in the construction of their semi permanent settlements. Artemisia monosperma is the dominant plant in much of T. kleinmanni's habitat, providing the basic habitat complexity and cover which the species requires. It is not grazed, but used intensively in semi permanent structures and fencing, thus large areas of desert are usually denuded of its plant cover in the vicinity of bedouin settlements.
Urban encroachment: The impact of urban encroachment is not as severe as in the North Coast, but is increasing in pace, and is expected to increase further with progress in the NSADP. At the moment most of the urban expansion is taking place on the coast east and west of El Arish, most significantly between El Arish and Zaranik, where the coastal strip has been divided and construction work has started at many locations. Most of the construction is related to tourism.
Commercial collection: Locals collect tortoises whenever they find them, apparently mostly for their own "entertainment", and are seldomly sold to commercial collectors, this is because the numbers involved are very small. In the past larger numbers were collected and sold to commercial collectors in Cairo. This was confirmed by animal traders in Cairo, who claim that some (few) animals still come from Sinai, but cite unlikely localities such as Mount Sinai, as the source of their animals.
Most of the (older) locals knew T. kleinmanni tracks, and stated that it was very easy to capture the animal once a track was a track was found. The fact that in North Sinai T. kleinmanni lives mostly in sandy habitats (unlike the North Coast), probably means that collection success here is very high.
Condition of habitats
No animals were found, nor was there any physical evidence of their existence in the wild (scats, tracks or dead animals) in any of the 26 sites surveyed in the spring of 1994. The only "evidence" obtained which suggests that some small populations or individuals might still exist, is all based on verbal communications with local bedouins.
Testudo kleinmanni is known to locals in North Sinai as Lajaah or Lajaa, a name not known to Nile Valley Egyptians.
Agriculture: Cultivation based on ground water has existed for a long time in the Wadi El Arish area and on the coastal strip between the latter town and Rafah, on the Israeli border. However, in recent years the use of modern irrigation techniques (such as drip irrigation etc.) and the introduction of drought resistant breeds of crops, has facilitated the reclamation of extensive areas of land to the south of the coastal strip, as far inland as 35km. This recent reclamation has targeted the prime T. kleinmanni habitat in the region. The first areas to go are well vegetated depressions between dunes (where ground water is close to the surface) and Artemisia covered sandy plains, both good tortoise habitats. Much of these areas have been recently cultivated by a drought resistant strain of peach (developed in Israel). These trees (as well as others) are now being rapidly introduced throughout large areas of North Sinai, particularly in the coastal dunes. The most drastic aspect of this process is that natural vegetation cover is completely removed to allow the trees to grow. Natural vegetation is also removed in areas where winter cereals are grown, and to a lesser extent where water melons are grown during summer.
Unlike the North Coast, North Sinai still has many small (and sometimes large) pockets of good tortoise habitats, this is because of several reasons. Perhaps most importantly the nature of the landscape of the region, which is mostly dominated by soft sand dunes. This has made access to many areas difficult, and has provided a great complexity to the landscape, where small patches of habitat can remain fairly well protected (such as in deep interdune plains, and amidst extensive soft dune fields). Another factor is the nature of human settlement, which is very clustered and concentrated around major urban centers (unlike the North Coast, where it is highly dispersed and fragmented). This probably leads to concentrating human disturbance to more limited areas, while larger areas remain less disturbed. Another situation where habitat is still less disturbed, is on small islands and sand barriers bordering the southern margins of Lake Bardawil.
Figure 8. Map showing the gross distribution of T. kleinmanni's habitat and its status in North Sinai. 1: Habitat degraded largely by over grazing. 2: Habitat destroyed by cultivation and urban encroachment. 3: Habitat of moderate quality, heavily grazed, and is sporadically cultivated (structural complexity largely intact, but food items scarce). 4: Fairly good habitat. The majority of the remainder of the area is too arid to support tortoise populations.
To the east of El Arish all the coastal habitat has been converted to agriculture as far inland as 10km (at El Arish) and 35km (at Rafah). A band of fairly good habitat still exist further south between south of El Arish and the Israeli borders, roughly a western continuation of the sands of Holot Agur in Israel. Very good habitat was found about 15 km south of El Kharruba and Sheikh Zwaied (aprox. 30°03'N 33°59'E), consisting of parallel sand ridges and interdunes covered with a healthy cover of A. monosperma, although annuals were still fairly scarce because of over grazing. The plant cover becomes too sparse beyond 40-45km from the coast. This reduction in plant cover is compounded by the effect of over grazing.
To the west of El Arish, most human activity takes place within 5km of the coastal road connecting El Arish and Qanttara. Some good patches of habitat can still be found south of the coastal road, but are usually heavily over grazed (though not as severeely as in the North Coast). The best habitats were found in large isolated interdune plains, but these were few and very scattered. Small islands and sand barriers bordering the southern margins of Lake Bardawil perhaps hold the best tortoise habitats in Egypt at the moment. Because they are relatively sheltered from grazing and receive higher rain fall than areas further inland, these coastal islands have a healthy vegetation cover, which is very divers florestically and contain a good abundance of annuals.
Assessment of current trade pressure
However, the biggest setback this species has suffered recently took place after political relations between Egypt and Libya improved and the borders between the two countries were opened in 1989. Egyptians working as herders in Libya (mostly from the North Coast) find and collect large numbers of tortoises (mostly T. kleinmanni but also some T. graeca, in the vicinity of Gebel Akhdar), and export them across the border for the pet trade in Egypt. Egyptian Tortoises sold in Egypt are usually associated with a smaller influx of T. graeca and are brought into Egypt (and often sold) along with Libyan goods. Thousands, of both species were imported to Egypt through the past five years (1989-94).
Large numbers of Egyptian Tortoises were collected from Egypt during the first half of this century for sale as pets particularly in Europe. This continued until the mid seventies, by which time the species was extirpated from large parts of the North Coast where collecting was possible. With the return of Sinai to Egypt in 1982 a new ground was open for collectors. Tortoises were collected sporadically from the area during the mid eighties (as stated by commercial collectors). The fairly large numbers of T. kleinmanni observed by Buskirk (1985) in downtown Cairo pet shops in spring 1984 (about 200 animals), probably originated from North Sinai.
|
Year |
1990 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
|
Number of animals |
2544 |
2004 |
0 |
1650 |
2183 |
|
Number of visits |
7 |
13 |
0 |
4 |
8 |
Table 3. Summary of trade between 1990-1994; based on numbers of animals found by the author mainly in the Cairo pet market at Saida Eisha. The number of visits indicates visits made to this market and major pet shops in Cairo.
A total of 8,381 T. kleinmanni were counted by the author in Cairo pet shops and at the pet market at Saida Aisha (in old Cairo) between 1990 and 1994 (almost all of these were from Libya, as stated by the traders and detected from the colour and pattern of the animals). The Saida Aisha market is the largest of its kind in Egypt, and is the place where the largest numbers of T. kleinmanni are traded openly. The market is opened on two days a week (Sunday and Friday). Not all tortoises are traded in this market, which is largely oriented to the local market and small pet shops. Big animal traders keep very large numbers for the purpose of export. Indeed 1,200 of the animals counted in 1994 were found in the back of one shop belonging to a famous animal trader (animals were very badly maintained and severeal were dead). Unfortunately it was not possible for the author to make many such finds, since animal traders are aware of moves to ban their trade and have become wary, reluctant to provide information, or co-operate, and indeed are hostile at times. Egyptian tortoises were also found for sale at Alexandria, Matruh, Port Said and Aswan.
The numbers counted by the author can only represent but a small percent of the total trade in these animals in Egypt, given the limited coverage of the market. The total annual Egyptian Tortoises collected could be any where between 5-10,000 animals.
The economic return from this trade is meagre. Only a handful of people might depend partially on the trade in this species for their livelihood. Herders who collect the animal from the field sell them for LE1-2 . The trade for them is but a source of occasional extra income and dose not form a significant part of their livelihood by all accounts.
At the pet market at Saida Eisha, smaller animals are sold for LE6 (mostly males), intermediate animals for LE7 and larger females for LE8. While in Cairo pet shops Egyptian Tortoises go for any thing between LE10-LE30. Wildlife exporters list Egyptian Tortoises for export from Egypt at about US$20 and are sold for around US$250 in the United States.
One man offering tortoises for sale in Cairo (in 1993) stated that his trade was not very profitable, since the trip from Libya was quite expensive, and the Libyans had imposed a 1 Lira tax on each tortoise payable at the border crossing at Salum.
Current protection status of T. kleinmanni in Egypt
With the passage of the Environment Law (law 4 for 1994) a new, more powerful and effective legislative system will be established, which will hopefully grant better protection to Egyptian wildlife. Law 4 for 1994 gives the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) the mandate and responsibility to protect Egypt's wildlife and their habitats, and makes the organisation the focal point for all of the country's international conservation obligations (including CITES). The executive decree of the new law concerning wildlife conservation is currently being formulated and will be approved in the near future. The Egyptian Tortoise will be protected by the this new law as well.
Conclusions
Evidence indicates that a few individuals or very small populations still survive in Egypt, being scattered very thinly through parts of the species' former range, which is now highly fragmented. The species could be considered "technically extinct" in Egypt, since the very few remaining scattered individuals do not constitute viable populations and do not have large enough units of suitable habitat to support them. On the other hand, the numbers of animals exported from Libya indicate that there is a considerable population of T. kleinmanni which might have been underestimated in the past, but will face the same fate as that of the Egyptian population if no action is taken to stop the trade in these animal soon.
Recommendations
Stop collection and trade
Inform and educate the public
The components of an information/educational "campaign" could include: Letter writing to key persons concerned, production of booklet/pamphlet about the species and the production of a poster, which could be distributed to ports and border control officers as well as local schools in the North Coast and North Sinai, etc., to encourage the conservation of the species. Some of this material can be used in Libya as well, if so developed.
Give national priority to the conservation of T. kleinmanni
Target Protected Areas as a focal point for in-situ conservation
Adopt ex-situ conservation measures
Survey the Libyan range of T. kleinmanni
Literature
The Egyptian Tortoise was protected in Egypt by Ministerial Decree 1403 for 1990. The decree, signed by the Minister of Agriculture, outlaws the collection or killing of animals in the wild, and prohibits their possession and sale, dead or alive. The decree gives the General Veterinary Organisation the authority to grant permission to collect up to five animals for scientific or "touristic" (?) purposes. This decree however was not implemented and has joined similar wildlife conservation legislation in their fate of ineffectiveness. In fact the Zoological Garden at Giza, part of the Ministry of Agriculture and the managing authority for CITES has continued giving export authorisations for increasing numbers of this species over the past few years, indeed since the issuance of the decree protecting it.
Intensive commercial collection and habitat destruction are the two main factors which have led to the disappearance of T. kleinmanni from much of its former range in Egypt. The impact of commercial collection on tortoise populations is direct and severe, but it is doubtful that it would lead to the complete extermination of the species from all areas where collection takes place. There will always be a few individuals which might escape collection and may succeed in re-populating their habitat (if habitats still exist). It is likely that the widespread habitat destruction has a more detrimental impact on the species and its future survival, since it completely eliminates the means of survival of any individual animals and reduces its chances of its reoccurrence (naturally, or through introduction or protection). Although the range of the species in Egypt is fairly large, much of its natural habitat has been completely destroyed or has been highly degraded. The general status of the species' habitats in North Sinai is marginally better than in the North Coast.
Some of the following recommendations could form the basis of a national Egyptian Tortoise conservation plan.
As a first and most important step trade (both local and international) and collection activities must be stopped immediately, through the implementation of the provisions of Law 4 for 1994. Priority should be given to stemming the flow of animals from Libya into Egypt.
A very important component of any conservation action for T. kleinmanni is to educate and inform both officials and the public about the plight of this species. Very few people (even in the field of conservation and the environment) are aware of the species, let alone its problems. Before any action can be expected by local officials in Egypt and Libya, they have to be aware of the problem and its magnitude.
The conservation of the Egyptian Tortoise should be placed high on the Egyptian natural history conservation agenda, particularly in light of the new and growing interest in biological diversity taking place in the country. Testudo kleinmanni is one of very few examples of endangered faunal taxa for which Egypt has a great part of the responsibility for their survival.
Protected Areas, both existing or potential ones, could play an important role in the conservation of T. kleinmanni habitats in Egypt, and indeed could be the only hope for the species in the country. Two protected areas fall within the natural range of T. kleinmanni; Zaranik and El Omayed. Zaranik Protected Area is located in North Sinai at the eastern end of Lake Bardawil and encompasses an area of about 170km², including some fairly suitable tortoise habitat. El Omayed Protected Area, located on the North Coast approximately 70km west of Alexandria extends from the coast to approximately 20km inland and encompasses what must have been previously prime tortoise habitat. Priority should be given to improve tortoise habitats within these two protected areas and develop "tortoise" management plans for them, which would take into consideration the specific conservation needs of T. kleinmanni. Further areas which hold good T. kleinmanni habitat should be nominated for inclusion amongst Egypt's protected area net work.
Given the relative ease and low cost with which T. kleinmanni can be bred in captivity (in Egypt at least), the options of ex-situ conservation measures should be looked upon favourably. The very rapid disappearance of the species from large parts of its range (along with whatever geographical variations there might be in the species), and the difficulty and long term nature of in-situ conservation measures; make it wise to maintain a reasonable "capital" of animals, which could be used for captive propagation and future release in adequately protected habitats. Great attention should be given to geographical variation in this process. It is important to look upon the ex-situ conservation measures as a component of a larger plan to bring the species back from the brink of extinction, where in-situ conservation forms the main component, and with the ultimate goal of having viable and healthy populations in the wild once more.
It is obvious that there are considerable populations of T. kleinmanni still in existence in Libya, where its greatest hope for survival might be. It is of great importance to try to find out the status and distribution of the species and the condition of its habitats in that country, in order to try to take conservation action before it meets a similar fate as in Egypt. A survey similar to that under taken in Egypt in spring 1994, could provide a general picture of the situation there.
ADDENDUM
Egpytian Tortoise still appears on the market in Egypt, but the numbers seem to be declining year after year indicating probable reductions of the population size in Lybia.
In __ and ___ Egyptian government has raided the pet market twice confiscating ___. These were to be the basis of a captive breeding and reintroduction programme at Zaranik Protected Area in North Sinai. One young male Egyptian Tortoise was recovered from another confiscation of reptiles from North Sinai in _____; indicating that there is some animals still remaining in the wild in Egypt.
The Libyan officials have been notified…some action as been taken.
There has been increased awarness and pubicity internationally for the plight of the Egyptian Tortoise, particuarly after Egyptian government actions. A number of individuals and organizations are cooperating together to _____, which includes the captive breeding and reintroduction program at Zaranik.
Measures taken to conserve the species since the report
Based on the findings of the report, the Egyptian Tortoise was up-graded from Appendex II to appendix II of the CITES Convention. All commerical trade in the species is prohibited. This has contributed greatly to reducing the trade; however the species continues to be imported and exported illegally.